Furthermore the selected 9 trees were taken as representatives of the 3 trees of their respective “dbh-LAI-class” (see Section 2.2). For example, the specific leaf area of the branch in the lowest crown section of sampled Tree 1 was taken for the entire lowest crown section of Tree 1, 2 and 3, since all these trees were in the same dbh-LAI-class. The leaf area of the kth sampled tree (LAk) was finally calculated by multiplying its specific leaf areas of the jth crown selleck inhibitor sections (SLAjk) and the according dry needle masses (dMNjk) and summing these products. equation(10)

LAk=∑j=13SLAjk⋅dMNjkIt is this estimate, to which we later on refer as “individual tree leaf area”. In the course of 3P-sampling, for three trees in one third of the crown no branch ZVADFMK fell into the 3P sample. Hence, for these trees the leaf area could not be calculated correctly in one crown third. For one pre-selected sample tree no sample of needles was collected. Therefore, for all three trees of the respective “dbh-LAI-class” no needle mass and leaf area could be calculated. Thus, finally there were 156 sample trees left for further analyses (Table 1). The dbh was measured with a diameter tape and the height with a Vertex IV (Haglöf, Sweden AB). The exact assessment of crown base, total height and crown length was performed on the felled trees with a measuring tape. To be able to calculate the crown projection area

(CPA) we used Field-Map® Version 8 (IFER, 2008) – a laser based tool for computer aided field data collection – to get coordinates of the tree positions and coordinates of 6–8 points (depending on the crown shape) of the crown

border of each tree. While Field-Map® also requires Beta adrenergic receptor kinase a person to visually determine the crown border, and therefore cannot help to increase the accuracy for the position of crown border points, it improves the overall accuracy for calculating the crown projection area. It allows recording more border points in the same time than conventional methods and therefore increasing the number of crown radii per tree which is much more essential for a precise calculation of the crown projection area than measuring a few radii with a high precision (Röhle and Huber, 1985). After collecting the data in the field we calculated the crown projection area using the quadratic mean of the recorded crown radii. For the crown surface area (CSA) we used the crown model described by Pretzsch (2001). This model assumes that the crown of Norway spruce consist of a cone above the maximum crown width, and a truncated cone between this maximum crown width and the base of the crown. The maximum crown width is assumed to occur at 33% of the crown length from below, and the crown width at the base of the crown is assumed to be half of the maximum crown width. From each of the felled sample trees, three disks were taken: one at breast height, one at three tenth of the tree height, and one at the base of the crown.

, 2006 and Juvonen et al., 2000); lower achievement and feeling unsafe in school (Glew, Fan, Katon, INCB024360 clinical trial Rivara, & Kernic, 2005); somatic complaints, such as headaches, stomachaches, bed-wetting, and sleep problems (Williams et al., 1996); and social skills deficits (Egan and Perry, 1998, Rubin et al., 2009 and Schwartz et al., 1993). Bullying can also lead to further rejection and isolation as peers might be reluctant to befriend or defend targeted youth (Coie, Dodge, & Kupersmidt,

1990). As a result, emotional and behavioral problems are common in bullied youth. Meta-analysis has shown that bullying is significantly related to generalized anxiety and social anxiety. Victims are three times more likely than nonvictims to experience an anxiety disorder directly following the incident (Hawker and Boulton, 2000 and Kumpulainen et al., 2001) and are at heightened risk for future development of anxiety disorders in adolescence and adulthood (Gladstone et al., 2006, Hanish and Guerra, 2002 and Sourander et al., 2007). A similar relationship has been found between bullying and depression. Victims are often lonely, isolated, and withdrawn (Hawker & Boulton, 2000), and an increase in

depressed mood and suicidal ideation has been identified among victims (Klomek, Sourander, & Gould, 2010). Of course, the relationship between bullying and emotional distress is complex. Youth with primary anxiety and mood problems can be seen as easy targets for aggressive children as they are often inhibited, withdrawn, sensitive, and may lack the confidence to assert themselves in selleck compound the face of bullying. Thus, anxiety and mood problems appear to be a consistent consequence of bullying, and internalizing disorders may be a significant predictor of future victimization (Cluver et al., 2010 and Fekkes et al., 2006). To address bullying

in schools, all but a few states have passed anti-bullying legislation that requires school districts to develop and implement formal Methane monooxygenase systems for identification and intervention of bullying. In New Jersey, for example, anti-bullying legislation mandates that each school identify an anti-bullying specialist who is responsible for preventing, identifying, and addressing harassment, intimidation, and bullying (HIB) incidents in the school. Anti-bullying laws differ across states, but most include statements prohibiting bullying behavior, procedures for reporting bullying events, and general guidelines for consequences (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development Policy and Program Studies Service, 2011). Some state guidelines have gone as far as imposing criminal sanctions for bullying behavior. In Georgia, a state with one of the most punitive sanctions for bullying behaviors, it is required that any student involved in bullying on three or more occasions be automatically transferred to an alternative school (Ga. Code Ann. §20-2-751.4). Several state statutes (e.g.

Further, this virus is amenable to assays in a 96-well format with excellent Z′-factors, can be used at very low infectious doses if required, has modest instrument requirements, and was successfully used to

Alpelisib price assess the effect of both antibodies and siRNAs directed against EBOV in a proof-of-concept study. Vero E6 (African green monkey kidney, ATCC CRL-1586) (Earley and Johnson, 1988) and 293 (human embryonic kidney) cells were maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium (DMEM; Life Technologies) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Life Technologies), 2 mM l-glutamine (Q; Life Technologies), and 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 g/ml streptomycin (PS; Life Technologies) and grown at 37 °C with 5% CO2. An

additional transcriptional unit was inserted into a full-length clone plasmid (pAmp-rgEBOV) (Shabman et al., 2013) containing a cDNA copy of the EBOV genome (strain Mayinga, accession ABT-199 cell line number AF086833.2) using standard cloning techniques (Fig. 1A). The open reading frame for a codon-optimized Firefly luciferase (luc2, Promega) or eGFP was then inserted into this additional transcriptional unit. Detailed cloning strategies can be found as Supplementary material. Rescue was performed as previously described (Hoenen et al., 2012). Briefly, Vero cells were transfected with 250 ng of full-length clone plasmid and expression plasmids for the EBOV proteins NP (125 ng), VP35 (125 ng), VP30 (75 ng) and L (1000 ng) as well as T7 polymerase (125 ng). 24 h post transfection the medium was exchanged, and 7 days post-transfection 1 ml of supernatant was

passaged onto fresh Vero cells for growth of a virus stock. This stock was harvested upon development of CPE. The genomes of the rescued viruses were fully sequenced, with no unwanted mutations being identified. Stock titers were determined by CPE-based TCID50 assay (see below). Infections were performed as previously described (Hoenen et al., 2012). For time-course analysis of luciferase expression infections were performed in 6-well format on Cyclooxygenase (COX) ice, and the supernatant was removed and cells scraped into 1 ml cold PBS at the indicated time-points after shifting the cells to 37 °C. 400 μl of these cells were spun down for 5 min at 1000g and 4 °C, and the pellet was resuspended in 200 μl 1x passive lysis buffer (Promega). Luciferase activity was measured in a GloMax-Multi Microplate Multimode Reader (Promega) 10 min after adding 100 μl lysate (equivalent to approximately 200,000 cells) to an equal amount of BrightGlo (Promega) in an opaque white 96-well plate.

Spatial span in Experiment 2 was only significantly

reduced when memoranda were presented to the temporal hemifield and participants were abducted 40o during the maintenance and retrieval stages. In contrast, there was no disruption of spatial span at all for temporally presented stimuli when participants were abducted 40° only during retrieval. On this basis we conclude the disruptive effect of eye-abduction observed in Experiment 2 is specific MI-773 research buy to the maintenance of memoranda in spatial working memory, i.e., participants were unable to effectively rehearse directly-indicated spatial locations when eye-movements to the hemifield where the locations were presented were rendered physically impossible. The aim of the see more present study was to establish the extent

of oculomotor involvement during the encoding, maintenance, and retrieval of visual and spatial memoranda in working memory. This was accomplished across three experiments in which we used an abducted-eye paradigm to restrict participants’ ability to engage in oculomotor preparation at different stages of spatial and visual memory tasks. In all three experiments it was predicted that if performance was critically dependent on the eye-movement system, then a reduction is span should only occur when memoranda were presented in the temporal hemifield of the 40° eye-abducted condition. This is because this was the only Tideglusib condition in which it was physically impossible for participants to plan or execute saccadic eye-movements to spatial locations in the temporal hemifield. In contrast no significant reduction in span was expected in the Temporal 20° Abducted condition, as in this condition participants were still able to plan saccades to spatial locations presented within the temporal hemifield. In Experiment 1 eye-abduction was applied only during the encoding of memoranda in visual and spatial memory. Spatial span was significantly reduced in the Temporal 40° Abducted condition, which is consistent with oculomotor involvement during spatial encoding. However, there was also a trend for lower span in the

Temporal 20° Abducted condition. Although this trend was not significant, we feel it is evident enough in the data to require us to be more guarded in our interpretation of Experiment 1. If there is oculomotor involvement during the maintenance of spatial locations in working memory (as demonstrated in Experiment 2), it can be expected that participants would first need to encode the locations as the goal of potential eye-movements. The reduction in Corsi span in the Temporal 40° Abducted condition in Experiment 1 is fully consistent with this. However, we acknowledge that encoding during the Corsi Blocks task will also engage nonspatial executive processes (Berch et al., 1998, Parmentier et al., 2005, Pearson, 2007 and Rudkin et al.

At the start and end of the incubation triplicate water samples were collected by gravity flow using 1 cm ID, 15 ml ground-glass stopper tubes (Chemglass). These dissolved gas samples were fixed with 200 μl of 50% ZnCl2 and stoppered immediately

to minimize surface water to air gas exchange (McCarthy et al., 2007). Tubes were submerged in ice-water and stored at 4 °C until gas analysis within 24 h of collection. Ambient water samples were filtered serially through 0.7 μm GF/F (Whatman) and 0.2 μm polycarbonate membrane (Millipore) filters for DOC, total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) and phosphorus (TDP), and DOM characterization within 24 h of collection. Water samples were stored in the dark at 4 °C in acid washed precombusted amber glass bottles (DOC & TDN) or frozen in polyethylene bottles http://www.selleckchem.com/products/forskolin.html (TDP) for analysis within three months

of collection. An O.I. Analytical TOC Analyzer with an external nitrogen detector was Trametinib research buy used in combustion mode to measure DOC (mg-C l−1) and TDN (mg-N l−1) concentrations. TDP (μg-P l−1) concentrations were determined colorimetrically by the ascorbic acid and sodium molybdate method following autoclave persulfate digestion. Ultraviolet to visible absorbance and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to characterize the DOM pool (Cory et al., 2010 and Williams et al., 2013). Absorbance scans were made at 1 nm increments from 800 to 230 nm and excitation–emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence scans were made from 230 to 500 nm excitation at 5 nm increments and 300 to 600 nm emission at 2 nm increments. Fluorescence scans were corrected for inner filter effects, a Milli-Q blank, and instrument bias and converted

to Raman units (RU) using the Milli-Q blank. From these scans four indices were calculated: fluorescence index (FI; Cory et al., 2010), beta:alpha ratio (β:α; Wilson and Xenopoulos, Glutathione peroxidase 2009), humification index (HIX; Ohno, 2002), and specific UV absorbance at 254 nm (SUVA; Weishaar et al., 2003). In addition, EEMs were combined with those of a larger sample set (n = 971) for PARAFAC modeling ( Stedmon and Bro, 2008). A 7 PARAFAC model was validated and described in Williams et al. (2013). The component excitation and emission peaks are: C1 Ex.260(360) & Em.482, C2 Ex.<250(310) & Em.420, C3 Ex.<250 & Em.440, C4 Ex.285(440) & Em.536, C5 Ex.360(260) & Em.424, C6 Ex.<250(285) & Em.386, and C7 Ex.280 & Em.342. Component Fmax scores were presented as relative abundance (%). Water column heterotrophic bacteria (×109 cells l−1) were enumerated via flow cytometry (Becton Dickinson FACSAria) after staining with SYBR Green I in the presence of potassium citrate (Marie et al., 1997). BP (μg-C l−1 d−1) was measured through 3H-leucine uptake into protein following cold trichloroacetic acid digestions and filtration (Kirchman, 2001). Epilithic algal biomass was determined as chlorophyll a.

e., the Alpine Space projects ALPFFIRS (fire danger rating and prediction; www.alpffirs.eu) and MANFRED (management adaptation strategies to climate change; http://www.manfredproject.eu). This recent interest for the fire issue has been arising from new evidences

observed in fire regime dynamics; for example, the extremely hot summer 2003 and other hotspots occurring during 2006, demonstrated that under suitable fire weather conditions it can burn in Austrian forests nearly everywhere (Gossow et al., 2007), and gave rise to a systematic data collection still not addressed (Arpaci et al., 2013). Furthermore, regional and national fire organizations are providing costly fire fighting High Content Screening services and must provide a safe work environment to fire-fighters. In this key, important steps have been also moved in the direction of cooperation at the national, or regional, boundaries. In fact, fire management

in the Alpine region is fragmented in many different fire organizations; only in Italy, seven regional authorities share 100,000 km2 of PCI-32765 solubility dmso land to manage, what makes also challenging to get harmonized forest fire datasets as to provide an exhaustive picture at Alpine level. Global change, i.e., current changes in land-use, climate and society, poses several new issues and challenges to fire management in Europe, including the Alpine area (Fernandes et al., 2013). In addition to the long-term ongoing land-use change, pronounced climatic shifts are predicted for mountainous areas of Europe (Reinhard et al., 2005 and Moriondo et al., 2006). Climate warming is likely to Montelukast Sodium interact with land-use changes and alter fire regimes in the Alpine region in unpredicted ways (Schumacher and Bugmann, 2006 and Wastl et al., 2012), with potentially serious consequences on ecosystem services, including economic losses and social

impacts. Higher frequency of exceptional droughts and heat waves in the Alps may increase the occurrence of high intensity fires of relatively large size, particularly on southern slopes (Moser et al., 2010, Ascoli et al., 2013a and Vacchiano et al., 2014a). Unlike in other regions, for instance the Mediterranean basin, the future scenario of large wildfires in the Alps is more likely to be similar to the third generation (sensu Castellnou and Miralles, 2009) than to the fourth and fifth ones. The reason lies in the relatively milder fire-weather, also in a climate change scenario, less flammable fuels and the lower extent and different structure of the wildland–urban interface. Despite this, a change towards the third generation might entail negative consequences on soil stability ( Conedera et al., 2003) and timber quality ( Beghin et al., 2010 and Ascoli et al.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. “
“Bartter syndrome (BS) encompasses

a group of rare genetic, autosomal recessive, renal tubular diseases characterized by urinary loss of sodium, potassium, and chloride; hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis; high plasma levels of renin HSP inhibitor and aldosterone; and high levels of prostaglandins (PGs) in blood and urine as a secondary phenomenon. Clinically patients present polyuria, polydipsia, failure to thrive, life-threatening episodes of dehydration, episodes of fever, and normal or low blood pressure. Frequently, pediatricians are the first professionals to attend to these patients and it is therefore important to be aware of this condition, since prognosis is better with earlier diagnosis and treatment. There are different types of BS, and

clinical and laboratorial variability depends on the affected tubular carrier.1 and 2 According to the affected region, some differences can be observed in the management of the disease, for instance, type II BS is associated with very mild hypokalemia, whereas RO4929097 order in type IV BS, treatment with indomethacin is much less effective.3 The present study aimed to describe the results of a long-term follow-up of BS patients treated with different drugs. This retrospective study, based on a prospective protocol, enrolled patients with clinical and laboratorial diagnosis of BS from 1993 until 2012, and adherent to the treatment, which was evaluated by adherence to scheduled

clinic appointments and serum bicarbonate and SPTLC1 potassium levels. Genetic analysis is not available in this service. The protocol was initially based on electrolytes supplementation (potassium and, in some cases, sodium), spironolactone, and the non-selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (nsNSAID), indomethacin. However, during the period of indomethacin treatment (1993 to 2003), six of 12 (50%) patients presented significant gastrointestinal symptoms;4 and since 2003, it was decided to adopt a selective NSAID (sNSAID), celecoxib, in order to avoid gastrointestinal compromise. Patients who developed proteinuria were converted to an angiotensin conversion enzyme inhibitor (ACEi), enalapril, in replacement to NSAID. This conversion was made during hospitalization, since patients can potentially develop serious hypotension with ACEi. The following variables were evaluated during treatment with each drug: Z-score for weight and stature, glomerular filtration rate (GFR) through creatinine clearance (using Schwartz’s formula, since urinary collection of 24 hours is difficult, especially in polyuric patients),5 average potassium supplementation, and serum levels of potassium and bicarbonate. The presence of proteinuria, gastrointestinal (GI) complaints, and findings of upper digestive endoscopy (UDE) were also evaluated.

In conclusion, this study has demonstrated

the genetic variability of RVA during an extensive period of monitoring and the severity of these infections in pediatric patients. It has also emphasized the importance of ongoing laboratory surveillance to detect the emergence of new genotypes and to determine whether this is a consequence of the global program of immunization, and to assess its impact on pediatric health. Fundação Araucária/State of Paraná, Brazil. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. “
“Diarrheal diseases (DD) and acute respiratory infections (ARI) are a serious health this website problem in developing countries. They are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in children younger than 5 years.1 and 2 Estimates published by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2008 showed that respiratory infections affected 17% of children in this age group.3 Diarrheal diseases, in turn, are the cause of death of 2.5 million children/year.4 In Brazil, in 2009, respiratory infections killed 2,733 children younger than 5 years, which corresponds to 5.46% of deaths in this age group. The data also showed that ARI mortality (around 4.5% to 5.0%) was not click here much different

in proportion among the regions of the country, although it was higher in the North (7.51%) and Midwest (6.47%) Regions.5 Between 1998 and 2008, 33,363 deaths related to diarrhea Buspirone HCl were recorded in the country in individuals younger than five years; of these, 82% were younger than one year.6 These data differ according to region. While in the Southeast the number of episodes/child/year is 1.04, in the Northeast, it increases to 5.55.7 and 8 It has been observed that even after the advent of oral rehydration solution and

vaccination against rotavirus, both very effective methods to fight diarrheal diseases, their incidence still remains high.6, 9 and 10 With the goal of reducing infant mortality caused by DD, in 2001, the WHO analyzed 12 studies involving children aged 1 months to 5 years who had diarrhea to verify the effect of zinc on the disease. The results showed that this mineral supplementation was associated with a reduction in the duration of episodes of DD by 25% and decreased progression to persistent diarrhea. The studies also showed reduced incidence of diarrhea by two to three months after supplementation.11 Based on these results, since 2006, the WHO and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) recommend zinc supplementation to treat and prevent future episodes of diarrhea,11 and 12 considering this is an essential micronutrient whose deficiency may increase the risk of infectious diseases.13 Zinc has also been shown to be effective in preventing infectious diseases of the respiratory tract.

Then, the medium was replaced with Dox–PEG, AG73–Dox, AG73T–Dox, or free Dox diluted with culture medium for Metformin manufacturer a final Dox concentration of 10 or 20 μg/ml. The plates were incubated for 4 h at 37 °C. The medium was removed, and subsequently, each cancer cell line was washed with PBS and then fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 1 h at 4 °C (293T-Syn2) or for 15 min at room temperature (colon26). For nuclear staining, the cells were treated with

DAPI for 1 h. Fluorescence images of the cells were analyzed using an FV1000-D confocal microscope (OLYMPUS, Tokyo, Japan). The cytotoxicity of liposomes was determined using the WST assay. 293T-Syn2 and colon26 suspensions (1×104 cells/well for 293T-syn2 and 3×103 cells/well for colon26) were added to Dox–PEG, AG73–Dox, AG73T–Dox, or free Dox with a serial concentration of Dox ([Dox]=1–40 μg/ml). Then, the suspension was incubated for 4 h at 37 °C in 5% CO2. After 4 h of incubation at 37 °C, the cells were washed, and fresh DMEM was added. The cells were then seeded in a 96-well plate and incubated for 48 h at 37 °C in 5% CO2. After PI3K inhibitor incubation, 10 μL of the cell-counting solution (WST-8, Dojindo Laboratories, Tokyo, Japan) was added to each well and was

incubated for 2 h (293T-Syn2) or 1 h (colon26) at 37 °C in 5% CO2. Cell viability was assessed by measuring the absorbance at 450 nm with a reference absorbance at 650 nm (Infinite M1000, TECAN, Männedorf, Switzerland). Cell viability was calculated according to the following formula: Cellviability(%)=A450(sample−blank)/A450(control−blank)×100. Colon26 cells (1×106 cells/mouse) were inoculated subcutaneously oxyclozanide in the right flank of mice. Five days after tumor inoculation (when the tumor volume reached approximately 50 mm3), HBS buffer used as a vehicle (control), Dox, Dox–PEG, or AG73–Dox was administered

via a tail vein of the mice (n=4). The injected dose of Dox in each administration was 2 mg/kg (approximately 10 μmol/kg dose of lipid). Various formulations were given every other day for a total of 5 doses. The size of tumors and the body weight of each mouse were monitored, and the tumor volume was calculated using the following equation: Tumorvolume(mm3)=longerdiameter×(shorterone)2×0.5 Colon26 cells (1×106 cells/mouse) were inoculated subcutaneously in the right flank of mice. Seven days after tumor inoculation (when the tumor volume reached approximately 100–200 mm3), DiI-labeled liposomes (lipid concentration: 10 μmol/kg) were administered via a tail vein of the mice (n=6). At 6 h after injection of the liposomes, the mice were sacrificed, and the tumors and organ tissues (heart, spleen, liver, and kidney) were dissected. These tissues were fixed in 10% paraformaldehyde substituted with 20% sucrose and then embedded in optimal cutting temperature compound (Sakura Finetech, Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and frozen at −80 °C.

Hong et al reported that ginseng extract administration stimulated nongenomic endothelial NO synthase activation and enhanced NO production in spontaneously hypertensive rats [73]. In another report, water extract of Korean Red Ginseng exerted vasoprotective effects through augmentation of NO production by inhibiting arginase [74]. Therefore, the effect of ginseng on melanogenesis via NO signaling selleck chemicals remains to be clarified by further study. Human skin

tissue does not consist only of melanocytes, keratinocytes, and fibroblasts. Considerable numbers of immune cells including Langerhans cells, macrophages, mast cells, and T cells are working actively in skin tissue. Because the immunostimulatory activities of many ginsenosides are known, it is not surprising that ginsenosides could enhance the reactivity of skin immune cells. In a recent paper, a cream containing 0.1% ginsenoside F1 (a metabolite of ginsenoside Rg1) showed a significant whitening effect on artificially tanned human skin [75]. However, ginsenoside F1 did not directly inhibit mRNA expression of tyrosinase or DCT in normal human epidermal melanocytes. Instead, ginsenoside F1 enhanced production of IL-13 from human epidermal γδ T cells, and IL-13 significantly reduced the mRNA expression and protein

amount of both tyrosinase and DCT resulting in visible brightening of normal human epidermal melanocyte pellets [75]. These results suggest that ginsenosides might be able to regulate melanogenesis via their effect on skin immune cells. Recently, several reports have shown that extract, powder, or some constituents of ginseng could inhibit melanogenesis in vivo or in vitro. drug discovery The underlying mechanisms of the antimelanogenic effect of ginseng or its components included the direct inhibition of key enzymes of melanogenesis (tyrosinase and DCT), inhibition of transcription factors (MITF, NF-κB) or signaling pathways (protein kinase A pathway and protein kinase C

pathway) involved in melanogenesis, decreasing the production of inducers of melanogenesis (cAMP, GM-CSF), and enhancing production of antimelanogenic factor (IL-13). Fig. 1 summarizes Sorafenib the effects of ginseng and its components on melanogenesis. Although issues surrounding the antimelanogenic activity of ginseng still remain controversial, especially in its effect on the production of proinflammatory cytokines and NO, these recent findings suggest that ginseng and its constituents might be potential candidates for novel skin-whitening agents. The author declares no conflicts of interest. This work was supported by the research fund of Dankook University in 2014. “
“Panax ginseng Meyer is a famous traditional medicinal plant belonging to the Araliaceae family. The genus name Panax originates from the word panacea, which means “a remedy for all diseases.” The 4–6-year-old roots of this perennial herbaceous plant are mainly used for medicinal purposes. P.