, 2007). Most recently, these insights have been extended to studies Selleckchem FG 4592 of P2X4 receptors within microglia, and it has been shown that both lysosomal secretion and plasma membrane lateral mobility of P2X4 receptors are increased by activation of the microglia (Toulme et al., 2010; Toulme and Khakh, 2012). A second form of activity-dependent regulation has been demonstrated for P2X2 and P2X7 receptors and is mediated by the Ca2+ sensor proteins VILIP1 and calmodulin, respectively (Chaumont et al., 2008; Richler et al., 2011; Roger et al., 2008). In both cases, Ca2+ fluxes mediated by these P2X receptors result in the recruitment of the cognate Ca2+ sensor to the C-terminal

domain of the channel to regulate functional responses. The consequences are subtle for P2X2 receptors, but result in profound facilitation

of P2X7 receptor responses (Roger et al., 2008). The interaction with VILIP1, which occurs during endogenous ATP release, requires slow conformational changes resulting in exposure of a VILIP1 binding site in the cytosolic C-terminal tail of P2X2 receptors (Chaumont et al., 2008; Chaumont and Khakh, 2008). Single-molecule experiments reveal that the interaction between P2X2 receptors and VILIP1 regulates plasma membrane lateral mobility of P2X receptors in neuronal dendrites (Richler et al., 2011), perhaps serving to affect recovery from desensitization by controlling the supply of receptors. Determining the full repertoire of proteins that interact with P2X2, P2X4 and P2X7 will help illuminate how these receptors Mephenoxalone are tuned selleck chemicals to perform their tasks in vivo. Single-molecule imaging experiments now provide accurate and consistent values for P2X2, P2X4, and P2X7 receptor diffusion coefficients in the plasma membrane (0.027, 0.023, and 0.021 μm2/s,

respectively) (Arizono et al., 2012; Richler et al., 2011; Toulme and Khakh, 2012). In the case of P2X2 and P2X4 receptors, activation by ATP causes the receptors to diffuse twice as fast in a cell- and subunit-specific manner (Richler et al., 2011; Toulme and Khakh, 2012). Accurate P2X receptor diffusion coefficients will be invaluable in modeling receptor movement and plausible roles for lateral mobility in recovery from desensitization during physiological activation such as would occur during point source-like ATP release in vivo. P2X receptors are often expressed at low levels, generally in specific compartments such as the edges of spines and within nerve terminals (Lê et al., 1998; Rubio and Soto, 2001; Vulchanova et al., 1996) and are activated by quite high amounts of ATP. It seems that sufficient ATP to activate extrasynaptic P2X2 receptors is only released during bursts of action potentials (Richler et al., 2008), suggesting that P2X receptors underlie neuromodulatory responses. Also, we are aware of no example in the brain or spinal cord where endogenous ATP release stimulates postsynaptic P2X receptors to trigger action potential firing (i.e., is a primary fast synaptic transmitter).

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