Review.CrossRefPubMed Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions MIL designed and constructed the ELISA and performed the manuscript. IP and WB were done by MIL and EL. Immunohistochemical staining was performed by MIL and MC. Statistical analysis was done by MIL and

SD. MIL and EL assisted with design and interpretation of the study. AB, AC and FT provided the cancer samples. MVC observed and evaluated the IHC slides and SHP099 price obtained the microphotographs. Histopathological diagnosis was performed by AS-E. Overall supervision of the scientific research was completed by AS-E and MVC.”
“Background Testicular cancer is a clinically, epidemiologically, and histologically heterogeneous group of neoplasms that represents 1% of malignant tumors in males. Germ cell testicular cancer is the most common type of tumor in males between 15 and 40 years of age, comprising approximately 98% of all testicular cancers, with an annual incidence of 7.5 per 100,000 inhabitants [1–3]. Germ cell testicular tumors are classified into two major sub-groups based on histological findings: seminomas and non-seminomas, each comprising approximately 50% of cases. This malignancy possesses a high cure

rate in its early and even in its metastatic stages, reaching 10-year survival rates between 90 and 100% [4, 5]. However, there remains a sub-group of patients GDC-0449 with poor prognosis with approximately 40% of 10-year mortality, regardless of treatment. In addition, 20–30% of germ cell tumors show recurrence that frequently exhibits refractoriness to

multi-agent chemotherapy. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) are serum tumor markers (STMs) that play a clear role in diagnosis, staging, risk classification, and clinical management of testicular germ cell tumors. Elevation of one or more markers is associated with disease PD184352 (CI-1040) progression and adverse prognosis [6, 7]. Seminoma tumors do not increase AFP levels, and occasionally increase hCG [8]. One main feature of cancer is marked angiogenesis, which is essential for tumor growth and metastasis, exerting an impact on outcome and survival rates, including those of germ cell testicular tumors. The most important angiogenic stimulatory factor is vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a mitogen specific for vascular endothelial cells [9]. VEGF is known for its ability to induce vascular permeability, to promote endothelial proliferation as well as migration, and to act as a critical survival factor for endothelial cells [10]. VEGF mRNA and protein expression is significantly higher in germ cell testicular tumors than in normal testis, and this expression correlates with microvascular density within the tumor [11]. Moreover, it has been shown that VEGF expression is correlated with metastases in these tumors [12].

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