Future studies are using more advanced spectral editing techniques, such as a spectrally selective refocusing method (Choi et al. 2006) or 2D J-resolved spectroscopy
(Jensen et al. 2009), are warranted to separate Glu from Gln. #buy Axitinib randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# Gln could be of particular interest, as synaptic glutamate taken up by glial cells is converted into glutamine before returning to the presynaptic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neuron for conversion back into Glu (Magistretti and Pellerin 1999) and therefore Gln may be a more accurate index of overall glutamatergic neurotransmission than Glu (Rothman et al. 2003). The ACC is part of a control network, and activity in the ACC correlates with the degree of decision conflict experienced when choosing between an immediate smaller and delayed larger reward (Pochon et al. 2008). Midbrain areas, such as the VTA and SN are involved Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in the subjective valuation of rewards presented during a DDT (Luo et al. 2009). Recently, it has been shown that the midbrain, through its
dopaminergic projection to the striatum, predicts individual differences in impulsivity in humans (Buckholtz et al. 2010). Midbrain dopaminergic neurons project to various brain areas, such as the striatum and PFC, signaling the availability of a reward. The dACC is important Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in integrating these reward signals in the decision making process, as dACC activation reflects decision conflict and decision strategy (Pochon et al. 2008; Marco-Pallares et al. 2010). Therefore, the current results of associations between functional connectivity between the midbrain and dACC, dACC glutamate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical concentrations and delay discounting could
suggest a projection from the midbrain to the dACC related to signaling reward, thereby increasing activity in the dACC reflected by increased glutamate concentrations, leading to steeper discounting of delayed rewards. However, this should have been reflected by a mediation model Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with dACC glutamate concentrations as a mediator of the relationship between resting state functional connectivity of the dACC with from the midbrain and delay discounting, but this proposed pathway was not significant. Instead, we established a functional pathway from glutamate concentrations in the dACC to delay discounting, through functional coupling between dACC and the midbrain. Rodent studies have indicated the presence of glutamatergic projections from the PFC to the midbrain and it has been suggested that firing of VTA dopamine neurons depends largely on glutamatergic inputs (Kalivas 1993). Evidence of (limited) glutamatergic projections from the ACC to the VTA and SN has also been found in primates (Frankle et al. 2006).
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