[98] During RA, chemical mediators in inflamed tissue invade and destroy cartilage and bone. The tissue pathological expansion, invasion and expression of growth factors, cytokines and hypoxic microenvironment which are a feature Veliparib solubility dmso of RA have resulted in the hypothesis that angiogenesis inhibition may be useful in the treatment of RA.[99] Disruption of the new vessel formation would not only prevent delivery of nutrients to the inflammatory site, but could also result in vessel regression and possibly reversal of disease.

There are several specific and non-specific angiogenesis inhibitors that have been FDA-approved or are currently being assessed in clinical trials which are safe for humans usage; however, their effects on RA remain untested.[100] The first line of angiostatic agents includes antagonists of VEGF, Ang and αvβ3 integrin and also non-specific angiogenesis inhibitors, including traditional disease-modifying anti rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), anti-TNF biologics, endostatin, angiostatin, fumagillin analogues or thalidomide.[101] However, their adverse effects (other than anti-TNF therapy) such as increased aminotransferase levels, hypertension, congestive heart failure, gastro-intestinal perforation, Idelalisib neutropenia, increased risk of serious infections, variations

in the gammaglobulin profile and high cost are major concerns.[16, 102] These drugs include anti-VEGF neutralizing BCKDHA monoclonal antibodies (bevacizumab), anti-sense VEGF cDNA, chimeric proteins consisting of the extracellular domain of VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 joined to the Fc portion of IgG, soluble VEGFRs, adenoviral expression of soluble VEGFRs and molecules that act through the inhibition of VEGF signaling.[103-106] In tumor research, VEGF signaling inhibitors stop angiogenesis

and destroy or change tumor vessels. Inhibition of VEGF and its receptors causes the loss of endothelial fenestrations, regression of tumor vessels and decrease in diameter, permeability and inflection of tumor vessels.[107, 108] Considering the important role of VEGF/VEGFR in regulating vascular function in RA, inhibitors of VEGF signaling could be beneficial. Norisoboldine (NOR), administered orally, significantly reduced the number of blood vessels and expression of growth factors in the synovium of adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats. NOR is able to stop synovial angiogenesis, which could be a supposedly new mechanism responsible for its anti-rheumatoid effect. The anti-angiogenesis activity of NOR was possibly achieved by decreasing the Notch-1 pathway-related endothelial tip cell phenotype with potential action of Notch-1 transcription complex.[109] In a recent study, Wei et al. suggest that NOR can also alleviate joint destruction in AIA rats by reducing RANKL, IL-6, PGE2, and MMP-13 expression via the p38/ERK/AKT/AP-1 pathway.

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