g. Heun et al., 2004; Fischer et al., 2005). Thus, if tSOS had induced synaptic down-scaling mainly in anterior neocortical networks, this should have also improved learning on the finger sequence

tapping task. Slow oscillations support the long-term consolidation of hippocampal memories, presumably by driving the neuronal replay and redistribution of newly encoded hippocampal representations towards neocortical sites of long-term storage (Marshall et al., 2006; Ji & Wilson, 2007; Diekelmann & Born, 2010). The present data suggest that the down-scaling and memory-consolidating actions of slow oscillations in the hippocampus are linked, such that the slow oscillation-induced Epigenetics inhibitor reactivation and redistribution of recently encoded memories results in a freeing of hippocampal capacities for the encoding of new information. It is known that sleep and, particularly, SWS facilitate consolidation of hippocampus-dependent declarative memories. In addition, findings after sleep deprivation have pointed to a ‘forward’ role of sleep in promoting the learning

of new materials during subsequent wakefulness (McDermott et al., 2003; Yoo et al., 2007). The involvement of SWA was indicated by a recent study revealing impaired encoding of declarative memories after suppression of SWA (Van Der Werf et al., 2009). In Selleck VE822 contrast, our study demonstrates a direct enhancing effect of tSOS-induced SWA on the encoding of declarative memory. In combination, these findings corroborate a causal

link between sleep SWA and the renewal of hippocampal encoding capacities. Because procedural learning did not benefit from enhanced SWA, SWA-dependent renewal of encoding capacities and the putative underlying processes of synaptic down-scaling appear to predominantly impact on hippocampal networks. We thank Horst Koller and Lisa Marshall for technical support. This work was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 654) and the BMBF (01GQ0973). Abbreviations EEG Electroencephalogram IL interference list REM rapid eye movement RMS root mean square SWA slow wave activity SWS slow wave sleep tSOS transcranial slow oscillation stimulation “
“The Cell Penetrating Peptide sudden appearance of a novel stimulus initiates a series of responses to orient the body for appropriate actions, including not only shifts of gaze and attention, but also transient pupil dilation. Modulation of pupil dynamics by stimulus properties is less understood, although its effects on other components of orienting have been extensively explored. Microstimulation of the superior colliculus evoked transient pupil dilation, and the initial component of pupil dilation evoked by microstimulation was similar to that elicited by the presentation of salient sensory stimuli, suggesting a coordinated role of the superior colliculus on this behavior, although evidence in humans is yet to be established.

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