(2001). These results support the notion that toxins venoms share similar epitopes for dermonecrotic toxins ( Guilherme et al., 2001). In these assays, the neutralization of edema-inducing activity by PLlv afforded lower protection in immunized rabbits. Finally, we investigated the neutralization

of sphingomyelinase activity by commercial sera produced in Brazil and Peru. An in vitro neutralization assay was performed by pre-incubating PLlv and BLlv with different antivenom dilutions from CPPI and INS. The applied doses were 0.125 μg of PLlv and 0.250 μg of BLlv, once these values showed similar sphingomyelinase activity. Both antivenoms neutralized about PD173074 datasheet 100% of both venoms activities in the dilution 1:100, and more than

80% in the dilution 1:500 ( Fig. 6A and B). On the other hand, with the 1:2500 dilution, only the CPPI serum partially neutralize both venom (30% for BLlv and 80% for PLlv, respectively). Previously, Olvera et al. (2006), had suggested designing a polyvalent antivenom and our results confirm that two different and interspecific MEK inhibitor review commercial antivenoms are able to cross neutralize venoms from different species, supporting the idea of developing a “pan-American” or global loxoscelic antivenom ( Barbaro et al., 2005; Olvera et al., 2006). Fig. 7 In conclusion, our data suggest, based on the in vivo lethal effect and in vitro sphingomyelinase activity, that venom of Loxosceles laeta

from Peru is more toxic than BLlv and that antivenom antibodies raised in immunized rabbits or commercial sera produced in Brazil and in Peru are efficient in neutralizing the toxic activity of both venoms. We would like to express gratitude to Dr. Marcelo Santoro for his critical review of this manuscript. This research was supported by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Brazil – CAPES (Toxinologia no. 23038000825/2011-63), Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil Venetoclax (FAPEMIG) and by funds of the INCTTOX Program of Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Brazil (CNPq). The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and assistance of the Instituto Nacional de Salud, Peru. “
“Mygalomorphs (Arthropoda, Chelicerata, Arachnida, Araneae, Mygalomorphae) comprise tarantulas and trap-door spiders, which are distributed in 15 families, 300 genera and approximately 2500 species (Hedin and Bond, 2006). Distinctive characteristics of mygalomorphs include apparent external abdominal segmentation, longitudinal articulation of chelicera and the presence of laminar lungs (Barnes, 1993). Tarantulas are included in the family Theraphosidae, which is represented by around 900 species divided in 112 genera (Platnick, 2011).

Individual areas of 13.9 cm2 of the skin (two fish from all three trials) were swabbed with sterile cotton swabs. Organisms were transferred to 10 ml of cooled ¼ Ringer solution (Oxoid, Basingstoke, Hampshire, United Kingdom) by vigorous shaking of the swabs. Appropriate series of decimal dilutions were performed, from which surface inoculation was accomplished using the 20 μl drop method in iron agar

solid medium (according to Gram, Trolle, & Huss, 1987) and in Pseudomonas agar (Oxoid, Basingstoke, Hampshire, United Kingdom). Total viable counts (TVC), as well as selective counts of H2S-producing bacteria and Pseudomonas were performed after two days of incubation at 20 °C. Counts were performed in PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor clinical trial duplicate and expressed as logarithm of cfu/cm2. selleck kinase inhibitor The Torrymeter 295 (Distell, West Lothian, Scotland, UK) was used for physical evaluation (all 36 fish, from all trials). The measurements were taken in the anterior-dorsal region, first on the right side, then the left. The electrodes, maintained on the top of ice to keep the same temperature (around 0 °C) of the fish (as this, according to manufacturers’ instructions (Distell, 2007, p. 87), markedly influences the readings) were cleaned between measurements to remove scales and mucus, and the

remaining ice was cleared from the measuring surface. All fish of the three periods were evaluated at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 18 days of ice storage. Pearson correlation analysis with 95% confidence interval was used to determine the relationships between time of iced storage versus QI and time of ice storage versus Torrymeter

measurements. Additionally, linear regression analysis was Sulfite dehydrogenase accomplished using the statistical software Graph Prism, version 5.01 (Graph Prism Software Inc., San Diego, USA). Linear regression analysis of sensory changes in contrast to time in ice storage and Torrymeter measurements was performed with the data obtained. The equation that best fit and correlation coefficients (r2) of QI versus storage time in ice and Torrymeter values versus storage time in ice were calculated using Microsoft® Excel (Microsoft Co., Redmond, WA, USA). Initial changes in the following parameters were listed in a preliminary scheme: colour, appearance and odour of skin; texture (elasticity) of flesh; mouth appearance, colour and resistance; bright and colour of anal fluids, shape of the eyes and cornea and pupil appearance and finally colour, mucus and odours of gills. The total demerit points first established was 31. During the development of the scheme, no parameters were found to be useless; the gill odour initial points were modified because rotten and metallic odours occurred simultaneously in a large quantity of fish. Thus, the total of demerit points was defined as being 30.

Chromatographic

separation was carried out in a Phenomenex Luna C18 column (250.0 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm). The mobile phase consisted of MeCN and water. A multistep gradient program was used as follows: 8% MeCN (0 min), 54% MeCN (45 min), 54% MeCN (55 min) and 95% MeCN (70 min). The flow rate was 0.8 mL/min, injection volume was 20 μL (4 mg/mL), and UV detection was at 296 nm (Gao et al., 2010). Toad venom was collected from the secretion of R. marina and R. guttatus in Mato Grosso State, Brazil. The animals were identified by one of the authors (D. J. Rodrigues – IBAMA, SISBIO: selleck chemicals llc number 30034-1). Voucher specimens (R. marina – ABAM-H 1262 and R. guttatus – ABAM-H 1538) were deposited in the Acervo Biológico da Amazônia Meridional (Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil). Nine samples (10.0 mg each) of toad venom of R. marina and R. guttatus were separated by gender (male/female), dried, powdered and extracted three times (5 mL) with CHCl3/MeOH

(8:2) by ultrasonication for 10 min at room temperature. The extracts were qualitatively analyzed by HPLC and LC–MS, and they were identified by the following codes: RMF – R. marina female, RMM – R. marina male, RGF – R. guttatus female and RGM – R. guttatus male ( Gao et al., 2010). Reference standards of two authentic bufadienolides, namely telocinobufagin and marinobufagin, were supplied by Dr. Geraldino A. Cunha-Filho (University check details of Brasilia, Brazil). Heparinized human blood samples (from healthy, non-smoker donors who had not taken any drug for at least 15 days prior to sampling, aged 18–35 years old) were collected, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated by the standard method of density-gradient centrifugation over Ficoll–Hypaque. All studies were performed in accordance Rebamipide with Brazilian research guidelines (Law 196/96, National Council of Health) and with the Declaration of Helsinki. Leukemia (HL-60), colon (HCT-116), glioblastoma (SF-295) and ovarian (OVCAR-8) tumor cells and PBMC were grown in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 20% fetal bovine serum, 2 mM glutamine, 100 U/mL penicillin and 100 μg/mL streptomycin,

at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere. The cytotoxic properties of the extracts were assessed by colorimetric assays after 72 h exposure using HL-60, SF-295, HCT-116, OVCAR-8 and PMBC. Cell proliferation was determined spectrophotometrically using a multiplate reader (DTX 880 Multimode Detector, Beckman Coulter). Control groups (negative and positive) received the same amount of dimethylsulfoxide solvent (0.1% DMSO) as test groups. Doxorubicin (Dox, 0.005–5.0 μg/mL) was used as positive control. The cytotoxicity against HL-60, SF-295, HCT-116 and OVCAR-8 human cancer cells was determined by the MTT assay (Mosmann, 1983), which analyzes the ability of living cells to reduce the yellow dye 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) to a purple formazan product.

An ex vitro NMR proton relaxation study of unfertilized hen’s albumen and yolk has demonstrated that changes in transverse relaxation

in the albumen correlated with increased protein concentrations and can be related to egg quality [17]. The usefulness of μMRI to follow quail embryonic development over time relies on embryonic development proceeding normally, but there have been concerns that the strong magnetic fields and magnetic field gradients associated with MRI could affect development. No adverse effects on chick embryo development have been observed at low magnetic fields of 1.5 T [18], [19] and [20] nor on survivability and hatching when in ovo chick embryos from Day SKI-606 ic50 12 onwards were exposed to moderate cooling and high static 7 T magnetic fields [15]. However, the effects of high magnetic fields on early avian development have not been assessed. Therefore we exposed in ovo quail embryos from Day 0 to Day 3 to high static 7 T magnetic fields, linear magnetic field gradients MAPK inhibitor and 300 MHz rf pulses.

Embryos were fixed at Day 7 and compared with embryos from control eggs that had been removed from the incubator for the same period of time but not subjected to magnetic fields, as well as with embryos from eggs left in the incubator until Day 7. Fertilized Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) eggs were obtained from Rosedean Quail (Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire, UK). The day the eggs arrived was designated as Day 0. The Methamphetamine eggs were imaged vertically, with air sac uppermost, in a plastic egg holder inside

the rf resonator. After imaging, the eggs were placed in the same vertical orientation in humidified VWR incubators (VWR International, Ltd., Lutterworth, Leicestershire, UK) at 38°C. Each day, the eggs were removed from the incubator, cooled for 3 min in running tap water and dried before imaging. Cooling the eggs prior to imaging has been shown to reduce embryonic movements that degrade image quality [15]. After imaging, the eggs were immediately returned to the incubator. Micro-MRI data were acquired on a Bruker Avance FT NMR spectrometer with a wide bore 7.1 T superconducting magnet resonating at 300.15 MHz for 1H. A birdcage rf resonator with an internal diameter of 30 mm was used. The rf resonator was tuned and the magnet shimmed for each sample. All acquisitions were made at 19°C. The field of view was 32 mm and in-plane spatial resolution was 0.25 mm/pixel. Two acquisition sequences were collected and averaged to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and reduce artifacts [21]. A 128×128×128 rapid acquisition relaxation enhanced (RARE) pulse sequence was used with RARE factor of 8. Recycle time (TR) of 500 ms and an effective echo time (TE) of either 20 or 30 ms were used. The MRI data took less than 35 min to acquire. Relaxation measurements were determined from two-dimensional 128×128 data sets from a sagittal plane through the eggs with field of view of 30 mm and slice thickness of 1 mm.

g. shipping, fishing, energy production, aquaculture) as plastic may result in entanglement and damage of equipment, and significant environmental concerns (Barnes et al., 2009, Derraik, 2002 and Sivan, 2011). The environmental impact of macroplastics include: the injury and death of marine birds, mammals, fish and reptiles resulting from plastic entanglement and ingestion (Derraik, 2002, Gregory, 2009 and Lozano and Mouat, Nivolumab purchase 2009), the transport of non-native marine species (e.g. bryozoans) to new habitats on floating plastic debris (Barnes, 2002, Derraik, 2002 and Winston, 1982), and the smothering

of the seabed, preventing gas-exchange and creating artificial hard-grounds, resulting from sinking plastic debris (Gregory, 2009 and Moore, Inhibitor Library solubility dmso 2008). In recent years, there has been increasing environmental concern about ‘microplastics’: tiny plastic granules used as scrubbers in cosmetics and air-blasting, and small plastic fragments derived from the breakdown

of macroplastics (Derraik, 2002, Ryan et al., 2009 and Thompson et al., 2004). The presence of small plastic fragments in the open ocean was first highlighted in the 1970s (Carpenter and Smith, 1972), and a renewed scientific interest in microplastics over the past decade has revealed that these contaminants are widespread and ubiquitous within the marine environment, with the potential to cause harm to biota (Rands et al., 2010 and Sutherland et al., 2010). Owing to their small size, microplastics are considered bioavailable to organisms throughout the food-web. Their composition and relatively large

surface area make them prone to adhering waterborne organic pollutants and to the leaching of plasticisers that are considered toxic. Ingestion of microplastics oxyclozanide may therefore be introducing toxins to the base of the food chain, from where there is potential for bioaccumulation (Teuten et al., 2009). The objectives of this review are: (1) to summarise the properties, nomenclature and sources of microplastics; (2) to discuss the routes by which microplastics enter the marine environment; (3) to evaluate the methods by which microplastics are detected in the marine environment; (4) to ascertain spatial and temporal trends of microplastic abundance; and (5) to determine the environmental impact of microplastics. Whilst macroplastic debris has been the focus of environmental concern for some time, it is only since the turn of the century that tiny plastic fragments, fibres and granules, collectively termed “microplastics”, have been considered as a pollutant in their own right (Ryan et al., 2009 and Thompson et al., 2004). Microplastics have been attributed with numerous size-ranges, varying from study to study, with diameters of <10 mm (Graham and Thompson, 2009), <5 mm (Barnes et al., 2009 and Betts, 2008), 2–6 mm (Derraik, 2002), <2 mm (Ryan et al.

, 1997). The data was fitted using Curve Expert v1.3 (D. Hyams, Hixson, TN, USA). The rate of reduction of resazurin to resorufin is taken as a PD0332991 measure of cell viability. Therefore, βV is the cytotoxic potency estimate for the particles in the CTB assay, with negative values indicating a decrease of reduction rate and positive

values indicating an increase of reduction rate of resazurin. Reduction (increased fluorescence), oxidation and hyper-reduction (decreased fluorescence) of assay reagents (resazurin or resorufin) by nanomaterials will bias the cytotoxic potency estimates. Specifically, reduction of resazurin by the nanomaterial will result in underestimate of cytotoxicity, while decrease of fluorescence of resorufin by oxidation or hyper-reduction will lead to an overestimation of cytotoxicity. Therefore, change in fluorescence in the acellular assay, under otherwise identical conditions as the cellular assays, was fitted to Eq. (1) to estimate the magnitude of the interference (βINT). Unbiased cytotoxic potency estimates (βV-INT) was obtained from equation(2) βV-INT=βV-βINTβV-INT=βV-βINT Data were analyzed using two-way or three-way Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) on data relative to control (0 μg/cm2 dose). Where the assumptions of normality and equal variance were not satisfied, transformations on ln or rank were conducted

prior to analysis. Holm–Sidak multiple comparisons procedure was performed to elucidate selleck chemicals llc the patterns of significant effects (α = 0.05). The statistical analyses are presented within figure legends. The pattern of effects presented in Fig. 1 could be interpreted as a decrease of CTB reduction after exposure of the A549 (left panel) and J774A.1 (middle

panel) cells to CNTs for 24 h. However, an identical pattern of fluorescence can be observed in absence of cells (right panel). That the decrease of fluorescence was unrelated to cytotoxicity, but was due rather to physical quench of photons was obvious from the settling of CNTs after 10 min or 1 h in the assay with cells (Fig. 2A) or without cells (Fig. 2B). However, interference was not limited to physical quench. Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase When reduced reagent (resorufin) from spent A549 supernatant was incubated with CNTs followed by clarification by centrifugation, a trend of a decrease of fluorescence was observed for CNT-2 and CNT-4, at the highest dose of 100 μg/cm2 (Fig. 3). This loss of fluorescence was accompanied visually by decrease of pink color intensity. The modified assay, consisting of clarification by centrifugation prior to reading at 10 min and 2 h, resolved the major issues of interference by physical quench in A549 cells (Fig. 4A) and J774A.1 cells (Fig. 4B). Difference in potency of the various CNTs, SiO2 nanoparticles and micron-sized TiO2 and SiO2 is reflected in significant Particle x Dose interaction, two-way ANOVA (A549 cells, p = 0.002; J774A.1 cells, p = 0.004).

Ascorbic acid determination at low concentrations and in coloured sample is

possible by high performance liquid chromatography, for example, although very expensive equipment and chemicals are necessary (Xi & Masanori, 1995). Ion chromatographic and gas chromatographic methods are lengthier and also very expensive for the determination of ascorbic acid (Mura et al., 1995 and Silva, 2005). The enzymatic method is known to be a very sensitive, specific, simple and useful method, in which the immobilised form of the enzyme is generally used (Akyilmaz & Dinçkaya, 1999). Authors would like to thank FAPEMIG (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais), CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and PROPESQ/UFJF PF-02341066 price (Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa e Pós-Graduação da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora) for financial

support and grants. “
“The authors regret that in Fig. 1 the labels ‘A’ and ‘B’ which are mentioned in the caption were omitted in the printed figure. The corrected figure appears below, and the authors would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. “
“Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is widely used in food industry for sterilization of equipment related to mixing, transporting, bottling and packing. During sterilization, H2O2 may become incorporated into the surface of bottles and packages www.selleckchem.com/products/icotinib.html and thereafter an additional process is required to decompose or remove the residual H2O2 (Hsu, Chang, & Kuo, 2008). Additionally, H2O2 has been widely used for preservation of raw milk due to its bactericidal properties (Haddadin, Ibrahim, & Robinson, 1996). However, excess of H2O2 can bring deleterious effects on the nutritional value of milk such as the degradation of folic acid, which is an essential vitamin to STK38 human body (Taher & Lashmaiah, 1992). Moreover, the ingestion of H2O2 at high levels can cause severe gastrointestinal

problems. The addition of H2O2 in milk at any concentration is not allowed in Brazil in such a way that the product containing H2O2 is considered adulterated (Brasil, 2002). In September 2007 Brazilian producers adulterated pure milk sold to manufacturing companies and end users by adding H2O2 due to its low-cost in order to increase the shelf-life of the product (Paixao & Bertotti, 2009). Nevertheless, the presence of adulterants (including H2O2) in Brazilian ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed milks from different regions of the country was recently reported (Souza et al., 2011). There are a few analytical methods for determining H2O2 in milk. A highly sensitive fluorimetric method was described for the determination of H2O2 in milk (Abbas, Luo, Zou, & Tang, 2010). A limitation of this method for routine applications is its prior sample preparation step, which involved a 9-min reaction before measurements. Electrochemical biosensors were also presented for milk analysis (Alpat et al., 2010, Campuzano et al.

Similarly, Santiano and co-authors’ paper on the work of after-hours CNCs at a metropolitan hospital focused on only two participants (Santiano et al., 2009). Whilst small scale studies provide a useful insight into practice in particular

health services and specialties, more extensive research is required in order to gain a comprehensive picture of CNC selleck screening library practice. A second weakness with the pre-existing research on CNCs is that some researchers have formulated their research methodologies on the assumption that the Strong Model offers an accurate depiction of advanced practice nursing roles. For example, in their examination of different ‘types’ of CNC roles within the public hospital system, Baldwin and colleagues investigated how individual CNC practice varied across the “five pillars”. Similarly a study examined the differences between CNC grades, using the Strong Model framework (Baldwin et al., 2013 and Gardner et al., 2012). However, it is important to note that these studies fail to consider the possibility that the Strong Model may not offer the most accurate conceptualization of advanced practice roles. Rather, they have proceeded on the foundation that the model is compatible, and then attempted to

fit the CNC roles around the pre-existing “pillars of practice. A third weakness in the pre-existing studies surrounding CNC practice is the lack of research on autonomy of practice. Under the NSW Health guidelines, the CNC position is considered to be an advanced nursing role (NSW Health, 2011a and NSW

Health, 2011b) and, as has been noted, one of the GSK126 mouse key distinguishing features of advanced nursing roles is the level of autonomy and clinical Interleukin-3 receptor decision making afforded to their incumbents (Elsom et al., 2006, MacDonald et al., 2006 and NHS Scotland, 2008). However, apart from recent research led by Duffield and team, which looked at the variability between CNC positions in areas such as decision-making and teamwork (Baldwin et al., 2013), the few existing studies of NSW CNC practice have not tended to examine autonomy of practice or how this is manifested in the daily activities of the CNC (Chiarella et al., 2007, Fry et al., 2013 and O’Baugh et al., 2007). This is an important omission, because if the CNC role is described as being “autonomous”, it is vital for policy makers and health service managers to know how this autonomy is manifested in the workplace, and for nurse educators to ensure that current training programs are designed to foster this attribute in future CNCs. Internationally the impetus to create such advanced practice positions within the RN scope has included the ideal of creating a career pathway, as expressed in NSW, but also modernization of services (Franks & Howarth, 2012). Modernization referred to designing positions that enable the full expression of scope of practice, moving beyond traditional constraints of community perception and traditional practice.

Species composition varied selleck inhibitor substantially within habitat types between study areas for some metrics: white fir was much more abundant in Moist Mixed

sites in Chiloquin than Wildhorse, sugar pine was abundant only in the Dry Mixed in the Black Hills, and lodgepole pine was more abundant in the Wildhorse area. Stand structure on the Dry Mixed sites in the Black Hills was most strongly dominated by large trees (73 ± 6% of tph > 53 cm dbh). The wide range of values recorded across the landscape reflects the inclusion of more rare and extreme conditions than the narrower range indicated by the standard deviations and 95th percentile values that reflect the CAL 101 preponderance of low-density forests dominated by large ponderosa pine trees as described in Section

3. Mean forest density has increased by more than 300% during the last 90 years, as measured by number of trees per hectare, and shifted toward a dominance of shade-tolerant species on mixed-conifer sites (Table 5). The increases in densities are due to increased populations of small diameter (15–53 cm) trees as there has been a substantial decrease in the densities of large diameter (>53.3 cm) trees (Table 5). The mean relative abundance of large trees as a proportion of total density has decreased by more than a factor of five and the percentage of the forest that supports at least 25 large-diameter tph (>53 cm dbh) has declined similarly (Table 5). Reductions in the abundance and proportion of large trees are universal on all habitat types. Changes in species composition as a proportion of density are more apparent on mixed-conifer sites. There has been only a modest increase in forest density (<20%) as measured by mean

stand basal area during the last 90 years, but it has been accompanied by a large reduction in basal area in large trees (>50%, Table 5). These statistics emphasize the dramatic change in overall stand structure from forests dominated by a few large trees to a much denser forest dominated by many small trees. The prevalence of low-density forests composed primarily of large-diameter ponderosa pines leads us to conclude that a disturbance Parvulin regime of frequent low- to moderate-severity fires was the dominant influence on the structure and composition of forests in this landscape for several centuries prior to the 1914–1922 inventory. The preponderance of low-density stands and pine dominance, even on the moister mixed-conifer sites, supports this inference. The structure and composition recorded 90 years ago is consistent with those of contemporary forests subject to frequent low- and moderate-severity disturbance (Stephens and Fulé, 2005, Stephens and Gill, 2005 and Collins et al., 2011).

, 2011b). An important consideration in achieving the goal of self-sustaining ecosystem restoration is the genetic composition of reproductive material which affects the success of restoration both in the short and the long term. Genetic diversity is positively related not only to the fitness of tree populations (Breed et al., 2012, Reed and Frankham, 2003 and Schaberg et al., 2008) but also to wider

ecosystem functioning and resilience (Elmqvist et al., 2003, Gregorius, 1996, Kettenring et al., 2014, Muller-Starck et al., 2005, Sgrò et al., 2011 and Thompson this website et al., 2010). For example, significantly reduced growth was observed in second and third generation seedlings of Acacia mangium compared to the mother trees originally introduced to Sabah (Malaysia)

from Australia in 1967 which represented genetically reduced sub-samples ( Sim, 1984). Self-sustainability of tree populations depends on adaptive genetic variation, combining the potential for survival and good growth and resistance to changing biotic and abiotic stresses ( Aitken et al., 2008, Dawson et al., 2009, Pautasso, 2009, Schueler et al., 2012 and Tooker and Frank, 2012). Furthermore, the extent of gene flow across landscapes over subsequent generations is important for the successful long-term restoration of ecosystems and tree populations ( Céspedes et al., 2003, Cruz Neto et al., 2014, Navascues and Emerson, 2007 and Ritchie and Krauss, 2012). To our knowledge, the success of restoration in terms of establishing tree populations that are genetically diverse selleck chemical and appropriate to the restoration site has rarely been rigorously evaluated. In the few studies we found that were aimed at evaluating the appropriateness of germplasm collection practices in restoration efforts, mismatching of germplasm to site conditions (Krishnan et al., 2013, Liu et al.,

2008 and Sinclair et al., 2006), and genetic bottlenecks, were common problems. In the case of genetic bottlenecks, source populations for germplasm collection were either declining (Broadhurst et al., 2006 and Broadhurst, 2011), or if they were large and presumably diverse, collection practices failed to capture science this genetic diversity (Burgarella et al., 2007, Kettle et al., 2008, Krishnan et al., 2013, Li et al., 2012, Navascues and Emerson, 2007 and Salas-Leiva et al., 2009). In this paper we review current practices in ecosystem restoration using native tree species, focusing on the influence of genetics on long- and short-term success. We build on a thematic study on genetic considerations in forest ecosystem restoration methods that was developed to support the FAO’s (2014) State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources report (Bozzano et al., 2014).